"But I'm a human as others, I can't do it".
Well, an excuse is for a looser. Does it mean that it's forbidden for us to say that?
:) Of course not!!!
But how then???
Okay, let's start from this story.
http://www.motivational-well-being.com/motivational-stories.html
9.17.2010
Conditions of Learning
by R. Gagne
Overview:
This theory stipulates that there are several different types or levels of learning. The significance of these classifications is that each different type requires different types of instruction. Gagne identifies five major categories of learning: verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes. Different internal and external conditions are necessary for each type of learning. For example, for cognitive strategies to be learned, there must be a chance to practice developing new solutions to problems; to learn attitudes, the learner must be exposed to a credible role model or persuasive arguments.
Gagne suggests that learning tasks for intellectual skills can be organized in a hierarchy according to complexity: stimulus recognition, response generation, procedure following, use of terminology, discriminations, concept formation, rule application, and problem solving. The primary significance of the hierarchy is to identify prerequisites that should be completed to facilitate learning at each level. Prerequisites are identified by doing a task analysis of a learning/training task. Learning hierarchies provide a basis for the sequencing of instruction.
In addition, the theory outlines nine instructional events and corresponding cognitive processes:
(1) gaining attention (reception)
(2) informing learners of the objective (expectancy)
(3) stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval)
(4) presenting the stimulus (selective perception)
(5) providing learning guidance (semantic encoding)
(6) eliciting performance (responding)
(7) providing feedback (reinforcement)
(8) assessing performance (retrieval)
(9) enhancing retention and transfer (generalization).
(2) informing learners of the objective (expectancy)
(3) stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval)
(4) presenting the stimulus (selective perception)
(5) providing learning guidance (semantic encoding)
(6) eliciting performance (responding)
(7) providing feedback (reinforcement)
(8) assessing performance (retrieval)
(9) enhancing retention and transfer (generalization).
These events should satisfy or provide the necessary conditions for learning and serve as the basis for designing instruction and selecting appropriate media (Gagne, Briggs & Wager, 1992).
Scope/Application:
While Gagne's theoretical framework covers all aspects of learning, the focus of the theory is on intellectual skills. The theory has been applied to the design of instruction in all domains (Gagner & Driscoll, 1988). In its original formulation (Gagne, 1 962), special attention was given to military training settings. Gagne (1987) addresses the role of instructional technology in learning.
Example:
The following example illustrates a teaching sequence corresponding to the nine instructional events for the objective, Recognize an equilateral triangle:
1. Gain attention - show variety of computer generated triangles
2. Identify objective - pose question: "What is an equilateral triangle?"
3. Recall prior learning - review definitions of triangles
4. Present stimulus - give definition of equilateral triangle
5. Guide learning- show example of how to create equilateral
6. Elicit per formance - ask students to create 5 different examples
7. Provide feedback - check all examples as correct/incorrect
8. Assess performance- provide scores and remediation
9. Enhance retention/transfer - show pictures of objects and ask students to identify equilaterals
2. Identify objective - pose question: "What is an equilateral triangle?"
3. Recall prior learning - review definitions of triangles
4. Present stimulus - give definition of equilateral triangle
5. Guide learning- show example of how to create equilateral
6. Elicit per formance - ask students to create 5 different examples
7. Provide feedback - check all examples as correct/incorrect
8. Assess performance- provide scores and remediation
9. Enhance retention/transfer - show pictures of objects and ask students to identify equilaterals
Gagne (1985, chapter 12) provides examples of events for each category of learning outcomes.
Principles:
1. Different instruction is required for different learning outcomes.
2. Events of learning operate on the learner in ways that constitute the conditions of learning.
3. The specific operations that constitute instructional events are different for each different type of learning outcome.
4. Learning hierarchies define what intellectual skills are to be learned and a sequence of instruction.
References:
Gagne, R. (1962). Military training and principles of learning. American Psychologist, 17, 263-276.
Gagne, R. (1985). The Conditions of Learning (4th ed.). New York
Gagne, R. (1987). Instructional Technology Foundations. Hillsdale , NJ Lawrence
Gagne, R. & Driscoll, M. (1988). Essentials of Learning for Instruction (2nd Ed.). Englewood
Gagne, R., Briggs, L. & Wager, W. (1992). Principles of Instructional Design (4th Ed.). Fort Worth, TX: HBJ College Publishers.
http://tip.psychology.org/gagne.html
Robert Mills Gagne
Born in 1916 in North Andover, Massachusetts, Gagne attended Yale University where he obtained an A.B. in 1937. He received his Ph.D. in psychology from Brown University in 1940 and taught at Connecticut College for Women from 1940-49 and at Pennsylvania State University from 1945-46. From 1949-58 Gagne was research director of the perceptual and motor skills laboratory of the US Air Force, at which time he began to develop some of the ideas that would go into his comprehensive learning theory called the "conditions of learning". His research on military training problems while working for the Air Force and his experience as consultant to the U.S. Department of Defense (1958-61) helped him see that the "grand learning theories" of his predecessors were in adequate for the design of instruction. Since 1969 Gagne has been a Professor in the Department of Educational Research at Florida State University in Tallahassee.
Around this time Gagne began to formulate three principles that he saw as contributing to successful instruction: (1) providing instruction on the set of component tasks that build toward a final task, (2) ensuring that each component task is mastered, and (3) sequencing the component tasks to ensure optimal transfer to the final task. He published an article in 1962 entitled "Military Training and the Principles of Learning" that discussed these ideas. Gagne first published his best-known book The Conditions of Learning in 1965.
Gagne's early investigations into the psychological bases of effective teaching led him to believe that an instructional technology or theory must go beyond traditional learning theory. Gagne concluded that instructional theory should address the specific factors that contribute to the learning of complex skills. He described these factors in a 1968 article entitled "Learning Hierarchies". Gagne next identified five unique categories of learning: verbal information, intellectual skills, attitudes, motor skills and cognitive strategies. These categories represent different capacities and performances and are learned in different ways. They are outlined in Gagne's 1972 article, "Domains of Learning".
After establishing his domains of learning Gagne went on to describe the environmental events and stages of information processing required for each of these domains in the 1977 edition of his book, The Conditions of Learning. The main aim of Gagne's theory is to assist in classroom instruction, The skills to be learned are written in the form of performance objectives and the specific type of learning is identified. Task analysis is then employed to identify prerequisite skills and "instructional events" are chosen for each learning objective. The major contribution of Gagne's approach is that it operationalizes the notion of cumulative learning and offers a mechanism for designing instruction from simple to complex levels. Gagne's concept of hierarchies has become a standard component of curricula in a variety of subject areas. And his theory provides a unified framework for a wide range of findings about learning such as those from information processing studies.
BOOKS
Gagne, R. M. (1975) (Author) Essentials of Learning for Instruction Holt, Rinehart and Winston
Gagne, R. M. (1968) (Editor) Learning Research and School Subjects F.E. Peacock.
Gagne, R. M. (1968) (Editor) Learning Research and School Subjects F.E. Peacock.
Gagne, R. M. (1965) (Author) The Conditions of Learning Holt, Rinehart and Winston
Gagne, R. M. (1964) (Contributor, Editor) Defining Educational Objectives University of Pittsburgh Press.
Gagne, R. M. (1962) (Editor) Psychological Principles in System Development Holt.
Gagne, R. M. & Briggs, L. J. (1979) Principles of Instructional Design Holt.
Gagne, R. M. & Fleishman, E. A. (1959) Psychology and Human Performance: An Introduction to Psychology Holt.
Gagne, R. M. & Reiser, R. A. (1983) Selecting Media for Instruction Educational Technology Publications.
ARTICLES
Gagne, R. M. (1988) Some reflections on thinking skills Instructional Science 17(4) 387-390
Gagne, R. M. (1984) Learning Outcomes and Their Effects: Useful Categories of Human Performance American Psychologist 39(4) 377-385
Gagne, R. M. (1983) A reply to critiques of some issues in the psychology of mathematics instruction Journal for Research in Mathematics Education 14(3) 214-216
Gagne, R. M. (1982) Learning from the top down and the bottom up Florida Journal of Educational Research 24 1-10
Gagne, R. M. (1980) Is educational technology in phase? Educational Technology 20(2) 7-14
Gagne, R. M. (1980) Learnable aspects of problem solving Educational Psychologist 15(2) 84-92
Gagne, R. M. (1975) Observing the effects of learning Educational Psychologist 11(3) 144-157
Gagne, R. M. (1973) Observations of school learning Educational Psychologist 10(3) 112-116
Gagne, R. M. (1973) Learning and instructional sequence IN Kerlinger, F. N. (Ed.) Review of Research in Education Itasca, III: F.E. Peacock.
Gagne, R. M. (1972) Domains of learning Interchange 3(1) 1-8
Gagne, R. M. (1970) The learning of concepts IN Clarizio, H. F., Craig, R. C. & Mehrens W. A. (Eds.) Contemporary Issues in Educational Psychology 230-237 Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Gagne, R. M. (1969) Context, isolation, and interference effects on the retention of fact Journal of Educational Psychology 60(4) 408-414
Gagne, R. M. (1968) A systems approach to adult learning Washington University Department of Psychology Technical Report NO. 15 1-4
Gagne, R. M. (1968) Contributions of learning to human development Psychological Review 75(3) 177-191
Gagne, R. M. (1962) The acquisition of knowledge Psychology Review 69(4) 355-365
Gagne, R. M. (1962) Military training and principles of learning American Psychologist 17, 83-91
Gagne, R. M. (1962) Psychology Principles in Systems Development New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Gagne, R. M. (1959) Problem solving and thinking Annual Review of psychology 10 147-172
Gagne, R. M. & Dick, W. (1983) Instructional psychology Annual Review of Psychology 34 261-295
Gagne, R. M., Mayor, J. R., Harstens, H. L., & Paradise, N. E. (1962) Factors in acquiring knowledge of a mathematics task Psychology Monographs 76(14) 23
Gagne, R. M. & Paradise, N. E. (1961) Abilities and learning sets in knowledge acquisition Psychology Monographs 75(14) 23
Gagne, R. M. & Reiser, R. A. (1982) Characteristics of media selection models Review of Educational Research 52(4) 499-512
Gagne, R. M. & Rohweer, W. D. (1969) Instructional psychology Annual Review of Psychology 20 381-481
Gagne, R. M. & White, R. T. (1978) Memory structures and learning outcomes Review of Educational Research 48(2) 187-222
Gagne, R. M. & White, R. T. (1978) Formative evaluation applied to a learning hierarchy Contemporary Educational Psychology 3(1) 87-94
Gagne, R. M. & White, R. T. (1976) Retention of related and unrelated sentences Journal of Educational Psychology 68(6) 832-852
Gagne, R. M. & Wiegand, V. K. (1970) Effects of a superordinate concept on learning and retention of facts Journal of Educational psychology 61(5) 406-409
Gagne, R. M. & Wiegand, V. K. (1968) Some factors in children's learning and retention of concrete rules Journal of Educational psychology 59(5) 3550365
Lee S. S. & Gagne, R. M. (1970) Effects of degree of component learnings on the acquisition of a complete conceptual rule Journal of Experimental psychology 83(1) 13-18
Lee S. S. & Gagne, R. M. (1969) Effects of chaining cues on the acquisition of a complex conceptual rule Journal of Experimental Psychology 30(3) 468-474
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